The History of Canada’s Confederation

From Disparate Colonies to a United Dominion

The story of Canada’s Confederation is not a simple tale of a single, definitive moment, but rather a complex and captivating narrative of political maneuvering, economic necessity, external pressures, and a shared vision for a stronger future. It’s the epic account of how disparate British colonies, scattered across a vast and often challenging landscape, ultimately coalesced into a united nation, laying the foundational stones for the Canada we know today. This journey, fraught with disagreements and compromises, ultimately forged a unique model of nation-building, one rooted in parliamentary democracy and a commitment to peaceful evolution.

The Seeds of Discontent and the Call for Change (Pre-1860s)

Before Confederation, British North America was a patchwork of individual colonies, each with its own government, economy, and often, its own set of problems. These included:

• The Province of Canada (comprising Canada East, now Quebec, and Canada West, now Ontario): This was the largest and most populous colony, but also the most politically unstable. The Act of Union in 1841 had merged Upper and Lower Canada, creating a single legislative assembly. However, deep-seated linguistic, cultural, and religious divisions between French-speaking Canada East and English-speaking Canada West led to frequent governmental deadlocks, short-lived ministries, and an inability to pass effective legislation. The concept of “double majority” – requiring a majority vote from both sections of the province – often made governance nearly impossible.
• The Maritime Colonies (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island): These colonies had strong ties to Britain, thriving economies based on shipbuilding, fishing, and trade, and generally enjoyed more stable governments than the Province of Canada. However, they were geographically isolated from each other and from the larger Province of Canada, with limited internal markets and concerns about their long-term economic viability.
• Newfoundland: The oldest British colony in North America, Newfoundland remained largely isolated and chose not to join Confederation until 1949. Its economy was heavily reliant on the cod fishery, and its people were fiercely independent.
• British Columbia: Located on the Pacific coast, British Columbia was geographically remote and faced challenges related to its small population, large debts, and the influx of miners during the gold rushes. Its primary concern was establishing a reliable connection to the eastern colonies.
• Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory: These vast territories, stretching across the Prairies and northward, were under the control of the Hudson’s Bay Company, a fur trading enterprise. Their future was uncertain, but their strategic importance was recognized by those advocating for a transcontinental nation.

Several factors began to push these separate entities towards the idea of union:

• Political Instability in the Province of Canada: The constant political deadlocks and the perceived ungovernability of the Province of Canada made a strong case for constitutional reform. Political leaders like John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier recognized that a larger union might offer a way out of the legislative quagmire.
• Economic Challenges: Many colonies faced limited internal markets and a dependence on trade with Britain or the United States. The repeal of the Corn Laws by Britain in 1846, which removed preferential tariffs for colonial grain, forced colonies to seek new markets and economic opportunities. A larger internal market and a unified customs system offered the promise of greater prosperity. The potential for an intercolonial railway to facilitate trade and movement of goods was also a powerful economic incentive.
• Threat of American Expansionism: The American Civil War (1861-1865) and the concept of “Manifest Destiny” fueled anxieties in British North America. There was a real fear of annexation by the United States, especially given the Fenian Raids – cross-border attacks by Irish-American nationalists seeking to pressure Britain over Irish independence – which demonstrated the vulnerability of the undefended border. A united front was seen as crucial for defense.
• British Imperial Policy: Britain, increasingly burdened by imperial defense costs and eager to reduce its responsibilities, encouraged its North American colonies to unite and become more self-sufficient. While Britain didn’t dictate Confederation, it certainly signaled its approval and support for such a move.

The Conferences: Laying the Groundwork (1864)

The path to Confederation was paved through a series of crucial conferences where colonial delegates debated, negotiated, and ultimately hammered out the details of a new political structure.

1. The Charlottetown Conference (September 1-9, 1864)

Initially, the Charlottetown Conference was convened by the Maritime colonies (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) to discuss a potential union among themselves. However, delegates from the Province of Canada, seizing the opportunity, requested an invitation to present their own proposal for a wider British North American union.

The Canadian delegates, including influential figures like John A. Macdonald, George Brown, and George-Étienne Cartier, eloquently presented their vision. They argued that a larger union would offer significant economic advantages, improved defense capabilities, and a solution to the political instability plaguing the Province of Canada. The Maritime delegates, initially skeptical, were reportedly swayed by the Canadians’ persuasive arguments and the lavish hospitality. The Charlottetown Conference concluded with a general agreement in principle that a larger union was desirable and feasible.

2. The Quebec Conference (October 10-27, 1864)

Following the success of Charlottetown, the Quebec Conference was a more formal and detailed meeting, bringing together delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland (though Newfoundland would ultimately not join at this time). The goal was to draft a specific plan for Confederation.

The delegates, often referred to as the “Fathers of Confederation,” engaged in intense debates and negotiations. Key issues included:

• Division of Powers: A crucial debate revolved around how power would be divided between the central (federal) government and the provincial governments. John A. Macdonald, favoring a strong central government, initially proposed a legislative union, but the delegates from Canada East (Quebec) and the Maritime provinces insisted on a federal system to protect their distinct identities and local interests. The compromise led to the creation of a federal system with enumerated powers for both levels of government.
• Representation in Parliament: How would representation in the proposed federal parliament be determined? The “Great Coalition” from the Province of Canada had agreed on “representation by population” (rep-by-pop) for the lower house (House of Commons), which favoured the more populous Canada West. However, Canada East, fearing being swamped by the English-speaking majority, insisted on equal representation in the upper house (Senate) to protect its distinct language and civil law traditions. The compromise resulted in a bicameral legislature: a House of Commons based on population and a Senate with regional representation.
• Financial Arrangements: Delegates had to agree on how revenues would be distributed, how existing debts would be managed, and how subsidies would be allocated to the provinces. This was a complex and contentious issue, as each colony had its own financial situation.

The outcome of the Quebec Conference was the “Seventy-Two Resolutions” (also known as the Quebec Resolutions), which formed the blueprint for the British North America Act. These resolutions outlined the structure of the new federal government, the division of powers, financial arrangements, and the creation of a railway linking the colonies.

Overcoming Obstacles: Ratification and Resistance (1865-1867)

Despite the agreements reached at Quebec, the path to Confederation was far from smooth. The Quebec Resolutions had to be approved by the individual colonial legislatures, and significant opposition emerged in several colonies:

• Prince Edward Island: Islanders were deeply skeptical, fearing a loss of their local autonomy and that the benefits of Confederation would not outweigh the costs. They were also wary of the proposed railway, which they felt would benefit the larger colonies more than their small island. PEI would eventually join in 1873.
• Newfoundland: Newfoundland’s delegates participated in the Quebec Conference but ultimately decided against joining Confederation at this time. Strong anti-Confederation sentiment, primarily rooted in concerns about increased taxation and a loss of economic independence, prevailed. Newfoundland would not join until 1949.
• Nova Scotia: Led by Joseph Howe, a powerful orator and politician, Nova Scotia experienced significant anti-Confederation sentiment. Many feared that the province’s prosperous shipping and trade industries would suffer under a central Canadian government, and that their distinct identity would be submerged. Despite this, the pro-Confederation government of Charles Tupper ultimately pushed the resolution through the legislature.
• New Brunswick: The Confederation debate in New Brunswick was particularly fierce. The pro-Confederation government of Samuel Leonard Tilley faced strong opposition, particularly from rural areas. While initially defeated in an election, a subsequent shift in public opinion, fueled by renewed fears of American aggression (the Fenian Raids), led to the re-election of a pro-Confederation government.
• The Province of Canada: While the “Great Coalition” largely supported Confederation, there were still debates and divisions. However, the pressing need for political stability and the strong leadership of Macdonald, Brown, and Cartier ensured that the resolutions were eventually passed by the legislative assembly.

The London Conference and the British North America Act (1866-1867)

With the Quebec Resolutions approved by the legislatures of the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, a final conference was held in London, England, in December 1866. This conference allowed the colonial delegates to finalize the details of the British North America Act and present it to the British Parliament.

The British government, keen to reduce its imperial responsibilities and seeing the advantages of a unified dominion in North America, readily supported the proposed legislation. The British North America Act (BNA Act) was passed by the British Parliament and received Royal Assent on March 29, 1867.

July 1, 1867: Dominion Day

The British North America Act came into effect on July 1, 1867. On this day, the Province of Canada (now divided into Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick officially united to form the Dominion of Canada. The first Prime Minister was Sir John A. Macdonald, who had played a pivotal role in negotiating the terms of Confederation.

Initially, July 1st was known as “Dominion Day,” a reflection of Canada’s status as a self-governing dominion within the British Empire. Celebrations were relatively modest at first, but over time, as Canada asserted its independence on the world stage, the significance of the day grew. The name was officially changed to “Canada Day” on October 27, 1982, following the patriation of the Canadian Constitution, symbolizing Canada’s full sovereignty.

The Expansion of Confederation: A Work in Progress

Confederation was not a single event but an ongoing process. The initial union of four provinces was just the beginning of Canada’s territorial expansion:

• Manitoba (1870): Created in response to the Red River Rebellion, led by Louis Riel, Manitoba was the first province to join after the original four.
• British Columbia (1871): Enticed by the promise of a transcontinental railway connecting it to the East, British Columbia joined Confederation.
• Prince Edward Island (1873): After years of resistance and facing financial difficulties, PEI finally joined, largely due to promises of debt relief and a ferry service.
• Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905): These two provinces were created out of the North-West Territories as settlement expanded across the Prairies.
• Newfoundland (1949): After two referendums, Newfoundland finally joined Canada, becoming its tenth province.
• Nunavut (1999): While not a province, Nunavut was created as a separate territory from the Northwest Territories, representing a significant step in Indigenous self-governance.

The Legacy of Confederation: A Unique Nation

The Confederation of Canada stands as a remarkable achievement in nation-building. Its legacy is multifaceted and continues to shape the country today:

• A Parliamentary Democracy: Confederation established a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy, with a constitutional monarchy, a bicameral parliament, and a responsible government.
• Federalism: The adoption of a federal system, with a division of powers between the federal and provincial governments, allowed for the accommodation of regional differences and the protection of distinct linguistic and cultural identities, particularly that of Quebec. This has been a source of both strength and ongoing debate.
• Peaceful Evolution: Unlike many other nations born out of revolution or war, Canada’s Confederation was largely a result of peaceful negotiation and political compromise. This commitment to peaceful evolution has remained a defining characteristic of Canadian political culture.
• Multiculturalism: While not explicitly enshrined at Confederation, the federal structure inherently allowed for the coexistence of different cultures. Over time, this has evolved into Canada’s official policy of multiculturalism, recognizing diversity as a fundamental national strength.
• The Transcontinental Vision: The promise and eventual construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a direct outcome of Confederation, physically united the vast nation, facilitating trade, settlement, and communication, and fulfilling the vision of a country stretching “from sea to sea.”

The history of Canada’s Confederation is a testament to the vision, perseverance, and willingness to compromise of its founders. It is a story that continues to resonate, reminding Canadians of the journey taken to forge a united, diverse, and democratic nation that continues to evolve and redefine itself on the global stage. It is a source of inspiration, demonstrating that even amidst profound differences, a shared future can be built through dialogue and a common purpose.